Tefilla Be-tzibbur

What is communal prayer?

An individual recites the Amida (also referred to as Shemoneh Esrei), the central component of prayer, with or without a minyan. However, the silent Amida takes on a special communal aspect when recited with a minyan.

Furthermore, the communal prayer services of Shacharit, Mincha and Mussaf include a repetition of the Amida recited aloud by the prayer leader (shali’ach tzibbur). Ma’ariv on Shabbat includes Magen Avot, which plays a similar role to the repetition of the Amida.

Each recitation serves its own purpose. Following Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik, we can call the initial recitation tefilla be-tzibbur, prayer in the community, and the repetition tefillat ha-tzibbur, the prayer of the community.

I. Tefilla Be-tzibbur First, each member of the congregation recites the Amida silently, at the same time, tefilla be-tzibbur. Many halachic authorities view this simultaneous recitation as the core of communal prayer, for here is when we turn to God as part of a group seeking rachamei, Divine mercy:

II. Tefillat Ha-tzibbur Second, when the congregation completes their silent recitation of the Amida, the shali’ach tzibbur recites the Amida out loud, tefillat ha-tzibbur.

Some authorities, including Rambam, seem to view this repetition of the Amida as the centerpiece of communal prayer. Rambam’s discussion of communal prayer highlights tefillat ha-tzibbur, not the initial silent prayer.

What is the relationship between the congregation’s recitation of the Amida and the shali’ach tzibbur‘s repetition? A mishna records a debate:

The first opinion in the mishna asserts that every person in the congregation must recite the Amida individually. In contrast, Rabban Gamliel maintains that the shali’ach tzibbur’s repetition discharges the congregants’ prayer obligation.

The Talmud adds more layers to the discussion and concludes that everyone who is able to should recite the Amida themselves. The shali’ach tzibbur usually only discharges the prayer obligation of the unlearned. This function is still enough to render the repetition a form of communal prayer. On the High Holidays, however, when prayer is longer and less familiar and thus more difficult to master, the shali’ach tzibbur can discharge everyone’s obligation.

At first glance, even when limited in application, this halacha might seem to fly in the face of our understanding of prayer as essentially seeking rachamei. How can a person act as an agent for someone else’s prayers? Unlike other verbal mitzvot, such as reciting Kiddush, prayer is first and foremost an individual encounter with and plea to God.

Perhaps that is why, unlike the case of other verbal obligations, a person cannot freely discharge another’s obligation to pray. The halachic mechanism of shomei’a ke-oneh, which considers hearing to be tantamount to speech, does not operate for tefilla.¹

The only halachic scenario that allows for one person to discharge another’s prayer obligation is the one the Talmud describes, when the shali’ach tzibbur of a minyan discharges the obligation of someone who would otherwise not be able to pray. This applies to the unlearned year-round, and to the masses on Rosh Ha-shana and Yom Kippur.

This halachic mechanism remains in place even now, since someone who is inexpert may enter a synagogue at any time.²

The fact that only the shali’ach tzibbur can discharge another’s prayer obligation suggests that the shali’ach tzibbur‘s recitation of tefillat ha-tzibbur is qualitatively different from the Shemoneh Esrei of a regular individual.

The Talmud teaches that after the destruction of Beit Ha-mikdash, formal prayer took on the role once occupied by sacrifices, korbanot. Maharil builds on this idea. He writes that tefillat ha-tzibbur is akin to a communal sacrifice, and the shali’ach tzibbur‘s role parallels that of the Kohen who performs the sacrificial service on behalf of the whole community.

Maharil adds that the shali’ach tzibbur must be acceptable to the community. This assertion relates to the term “shali’ach tzibbur,” which literally means “agent of the community.”

Rav Soloveitchik explains that the full community is tasked with discharging the prayer obligations of individuals who cannot pray on their own. The shali’ach tzibbur acts not as an individual, but as the community’s agent:

In practice, the shali’ach tzibbur also leads the community in other rituals attached to the Amida, including devarim she-bikdusha such as Kaddish and Barechu. The more general term for a prayer leader, chazzan, can apply both to the shali’ach tzibbur and to the leader of other parts of the service, such as Pesukei De-zimra, where the role is less formalized.

Leading

Why can’t a woman serve as shali’ach tzibbur? As Maharil suggests, Tefillat ha-tzibbur is in some ways analogous to a korban tzibbur, a communal sacrifice. A shali’ach tzibbur repeating the Amida thus functions as an agent through whom the community discharges obligations in prayer, akin to the Kohen performing the sacrificial service.

Even though the communal sacrifices in Beit Ha-mikdash belonged to the entire community, only a Kohen could offer them on behalf of the people. Perhaps this provides precedent for the idea that not all participants in a communal ritual are eligible for the role of communal agent.³

Indeed, as Rambam states (above), only someone who can be counted in a minyan can serve as an agent for it (and thus for the broader prayer community). Although a woman is obligated in prayer (and, as we will see, participates fully in tefilla be-tzibbur), she is not counted towards a minyan for tefillat ha-tzibbur. Women’s exemption from minyan itself might originate in a halachic tendency to select men as communal representatives. (See more here.)

Women’s not counting toward minyan means that women cannot serve as agents of the community leading tefillat ha-tzibbur. Does that logic also apply to other devarim she-bikdusha?

Some authorities maintain that it does. Especially given that a woman does not count toward forming a minyan for reciting devarim she-bikdusha, they assume that women cannot lead any davar she-bikdusha. Meiri states this directly:

However, devarim she-bikdusha are sometimes recited outside of the context of tefilla be-tzibbur or do not entail agency on behalf of the community. They may simply be calls to praise and sanctify God, in the presence of a minyan. In those cases, when no agency or tefilla be-tzibbur is involved, some authorities maintain that devarim she-bikdusha should follow the logic of the general mitzva of kiddush Hashem, which includes women. Rav Yair Bacharach makes this point regarding mourner’s kaddish, which is a davar she-bikdusha, but is not part of leading the prayer service.⁴

Both Barechu and Shema have the same shali’ach tzibbur as Shemoneh Esrei, in part because the need to connect ge’ula li-tfilla dictates that there be no break between them.⁵ The shali’ach tzibbur also recites the regular Kaddish (as opposed to mourner’s Kaddish), which serves as a lead-in to the whole prayer unit,⁶ as well as Kedusha, which is embedded within the repetition of the Amida. This list covers nearly all of communal tefilla, and effectively rules out a woman leading devarim she-bikdusha in the prayer service.

Recent Discussion

In recent years, as many women have shown increasing interest in participating in communal forms of avodat Hashem, some communities have begun to have women serve as chazzanit and lead rituals or portions of tefilla that do not include discharging public obligations or leading devarim she–bikdusha (again, with the possible exception of mourner’s Kaddish) and thus do not technically require a formal shali’ach tzibbur. These might include the prayer for the State of Israel, Kiddush in synagogue Friday night, Kabbalat Shabbat, or even Pesukei De-zimra.

Ironically, support for women leading synagogue ritual often comes through technical halachic argumentation that leading a given ritual bears little or no halachic import, such that a male minor could lead it.⁷

These measures have been met with controversy. (We discuss the question of women participating in communal Torah readings here.) Potential halachic questions include the following:

I. Confusion A woman leading some synagogue rituals might sow confusion, creating the impression that a woman may serve as shali’ach tzibbur.⁸ (We saw a similar argument raised in discussion of women blowing shofar in Elul.) The practice of many synagogues, however, to permit minor males to lead Kabbalat Shabbat or Pesukei De-zimra without concern for such confusion weakens this objection.⁹

II. Tzeniut Sometimes questions might arise, depending on the set up, of eroding gender separation in synagogue. When the recitation involves chanting or singing, it arguably raises issues of kol isha as well. Even when kol isha is not technically at issue, many halachic authorities call for an extra measure of tzeniut in the synagogue, which women’s leading ritual might challenge. This might relate to the halachic debate around women discharging men’s obligations or leading men’s ritual recitations in general. On the other hand, some tzeniut considerations vary based on context and community norms.

III. Synagogue Practice Changes in ritual practice are not undertaken lightly, especially in the synagogue, the “Mikdash me’at” “Temple writ small” (as we saw here). While new customs such as Kabbalat Shabbat (only about four hundred years old) are sometimes adopted, these processes are typically slow and cautious, because there is halachic and religious value to retaining continuity with prior generations and to keeping in step with other communities worldwide.

To date, Rav Professor Daniel Sperber is the most prominent rabbinic voice in support of these innovations.¹⁰ They have garnered opposition or lack of support from many halachic authorities. Opponents have raised concerns about divisiveness or about where they might lead.

Rav Hershel Schachter, who opposes these practices on halachic grounds, also writes forcefully that more than technical halachic questions are at stake.¹¹

Rav Sperber, on the other hand, claims that opposition to these practices is based primarily on policy considerations, rather than serious halachic objections:¹²

In a blog piece, Dr. Yoel Finkelman notes that the dispute centers more on broad questions of halachic process and authority than on technical halachic argumentation.¹³

Beyond technical halachic argumentation, the essential questions here are:

• Do the principle of tzeniut and the force of tradition leave room for change in women’s roles in the synagogue?
• Are such changes are justified or desirable, and to what extent?
• Who has the authority to make these decisions?

Women don’t count toward creating a minyan for tefillat ha-tzibbur. Does that imply that women are not considered part of the tzibbur? No. A woman praying with the tzibbur is only precluded from being shali’ach tzibbur. In every other respect, she is a full participant in tefilla be-tzibbur.

Similarly, a man need not be counted toward a minyan to be part of tefillat ha-tzibbur. A man who joins a minyan from a nearby location is still considered to be a full participant in public prayer and can answer devarim she-bikdusha:

This holds true for men praying in a women’s section as well,¹⁴ so praying in the women’s section should likewise not detract from women’s joining in tefillat ha-tzibbur.

A couple of early sources also indicate that women’s participation in public prayer is considered meritorious. Midrash Yalkut Shimoni gives one example:

The merit for this woman’s scrupulous attendance at prayers was enough to prolong her life.¹⁵ In practice, while many Jewish women try to attend synagogue on Shabbat and chagim, the vast majority do not take part in communal prayer on a daily basis. Although texts such as Yalkut Shimoni praise prayer attendance as meritorious, other forms of avodat Hashem, such as chessed or child-rearing, often receive more rabbinic and social support.¹⁶

Rav Eliyahu Kalischer, a student of Rav Chayyim Volozhin, takes the idea of women’s participation a step further. There is extensive halachic discussion regarding whether the silent tefilla be-tzibbur requires at least ten men to be present who have not yet prayed. Rav Kalischer maintains that when there is a minyan of men present, but some have already prayed, women joining in the tefilla be-tzibbur can count toward forming a group of ten who have not yet prayed.¹⁷

In practice, a person who arrives late to synagogue, or who prays more slowly than the congregation, would often need to skip some of Pesukei De-zimra in order to catch up with the tzibbur in time for the Amida. What should a woman do in such a situation? Is it any different from what a man would do?

Custom varies from community to community. Rav Shlomo Zalman Auerbach has been quoted to the effect that a woman coming late to synagogue should not adjust her prayer in order to catch up with the congregation.¹⁸ In oral communication, Rav Yehuda Henkin left this choice up to the woman.

In contrast, Rav Baruch Gigi, Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshivat Har Etzion, instructs a woman coming late to synagogue to adapt her prayer much as a man would in order to join the congregation. In other words, she should abbreviate her Pesukei De-zimra in order to recite Shemoneh Esrei with the tzibbur.¹⁹ If she missed Shacharit, she should recite it silently when the community recites Mussaf (since a woman is certainly obligated in Shacharit, while her obligation in Mussaf is a question). She would then have the opportunity to recite Mussaf along with the shali’ach tzibbur.²⁰ She should listen to keri’at ha-Torah unless it will mean that she misses the latest time for reciting Shemoneh Esrei of Shacharit. (See more here here.)

The meritorious nature of women’s participation in communal prayer does not make it obligatory. It is by no means clear that men are obligated in it, either. Maharil presents public prayer as a type of hiddur mitzva, or glorification of the mitzva of tefilla, not an outright obligation.

A community has a collective obligation to ensure there is a minyan, so that tefillat ha-tzibbur takes place in each and every community of Jews. An individual should make every effort to attend minyan if there is one within a reasonable distance.²² But on this view, once a minyan is assured, the individual may not be obligated to attend.

Tur, on the other hand, suggests that individuals do have an obligation to attend communal prayer:

What about women? Rav Yaakov Reischer maintains that women have no obligation in public prayer

This statement is only meaningful if one maintains that men do have an obligation in public prayer. Otherwise, once a community has a minyan, it is not clear that men have any more obligation to be present than women do.

Still, Rav Reischer’s view aligns with centuries of practice.²³ In fact, in medieval Ashkenaz, many synagogues did not have women’s sections at all, but rather set aside independent buildings in which women would pray in unison. Others had women’s sections so cut off from the main sanctuary that one who prayed in them, of any gender, was unlikely to count as a participant in communal prayer. In these women’s synagogues or sections, a female prayer-leader would independently lead the other women in prayer, not including devarim she-bikdusha.²⁴

Rav Eliezer Roke’ach’s dirge over his wife, Dulcea (Dolce of Worms), describes her as a prayer leader for the women in her community and in other lands, for whom prayer was a central part of avodat Hashem.²⁵

Since women are not obligated in tefilla be-tzibbur, but stand to benefit from it, a woman can make her own choices as to whether she comes to synagogue on time or attends at all (with the possible exception of special occasions where attendance at synagogue facilitates fulfilling another mitzva, like hearing parashat Zachor).

One possible factor in a woman’s decision to attend synagogue or pray at home is kavvana, or intentionality in prayer. Some people pray more effectively with the tzibbur. For others, praying alone is more satisfying and effective. The Talmud tells us that Rabbi Akiva sometimes prayed with the tzibbur, and sometimes alone, and his prayer alone had a special quality.

Normative halacha for men is to prioritize communal prayer over praying with more intentionality. The calculus for a woman may differ.²⁶ Even so, whenever a woman does participate in tefilla be-tzibbur, she avails herself of an opportunity with great spiritual and halachic value.

What of women worshiping together as a group? Assuming that such a group does not perform any ritual that needs a minyan, it does not run afoul of the requirement for minyan.

As noted above, women’s prayer distinct from the male tzibbur has a long history, going back at least to the women’s synagogues of medieval Europe, and continuing today. Students in all-girls schools begin the day with tefilla, which often includes communal singing and a female prayer leader. Communities of women and girls gather to recite Tehillim – sometimes silently, sometimes responsively with a woman leading.

Is there positive value to praying in a group, even if it is not a minyan? Yes, aside from its experiential power, group prayer is religiously significant, even without all the attributes of tefilla be-tzibbur. Rav Moshe Sternbuch suggests that when even three people pray side by side, their prayer has a value beyond that of individual prayer:

A group that is not a minyan generally prays in the same way an individual would. One exception is Hallel, where a group of three or more can recite some sections responsively. As we pointed out here, a group of women reciting Hallel together may form a community for call and response.

Debate

While schoolgirls’ tefilla and women’s Tehillim groups are widely accepted, the permissibility and propriety of contemporary women’s tefilla groups (as they are usually known) have been hotly debated, especially in America, where they have sometimes been perceived as a step toward egalitarianism, a hallmark of more liberal Jewish denominations. (The use of a Sefer Torah in these contexts, which we address here, has been especially controversial.)

In Israel, representatives of an established women’s tefilla group share some perceptions of its strengths and complications, providing a window into central aspects of the debate:²⁷

These women have created a communal space for prayer in which members feel recognized and more connected to the service.

In a sense, their choice prioritizes kavvana and personal religious experience over the benefits of tefilla be-tzibbur with a minyan. Much of the opposition to women’s tefilla groups has rested on objection to making such a choice. (This is one reason why daily prayer in girls’ schools or women’s Tehillim groups, which do not typically represent choosing women’s tefilla over minyan, have not met such opposition.) Rav J David Bleich lays out the argument:²⁸

To Rav Bleich, a woman’s personal rationale for attending a women’s tefilla group could never be halachically more significant than the benefits of tefilla be-tzibbur. Rav Aryeh Frimer and Rav Dov Frimer relate that Rav Soloveitchik was among those who opposed women attending women’s tefilla groups for this reason. In an article on tefilla groups, they elucidate his objections, though they do not characterize him as prohibiting the groups:²⁹

Beyond raising the question of choosing not to attend traditional services, Rav Soloveitchik viewed women’s tefilla groups as an inauthentic deviation from custom. Their association with liberal denominations further influenced his views to the negative.

Based on this report, one can argue that halachic permissibility and desirability of establishing or participating in a women’s tefilla group may depend on how the group functions and the specifics of its context. For this reason, a group of women considering joining or starting a women’s tefilla group should be in close contact with local halachic authorities to discuss their aspirations and the relevant halachic parameters, and to determine the best course of action.

In practice, most women’s tefilla groups meet only once a month or on special occasions (or less frequently), and not weekly, so that attending one resembles the practice of some men to pray outside of minyan on occasion out of personal preference. Leaving aside the question of Torah reading at the groups, which we’ll discuss separately, their infrequency means that they do not interfere with the women involved participating in tefilla be-tzibbur for most tefillot. Occasional prayer at a women’s tefilla group may even foster a stronger sense of connection to tefilla in general, which can ultimately enhance the experience of tefilla be-tzibbur.