Selichot

Jewish communities customarily recite Selichot (lit. forgivenesses) in Elul and Tishrei, as well as on most fast days. To understand Selichot and women’s relationship to them, we first need to explore the thirteen attributes of mercy, the central component of Selichot, as well as some of the history of Selichot.

In the aftermath of the sin of the Golden Calf, Moshe Rabbeinu re-ascends Har Sinai to entreat God to forgive benei Yisrael. After forgiveness is granted, he asks God to reassure him by revealing more facets of the Divine. God gives the second set of tablets as promised, and then grants Moshe’s request by passing before him and proclaiming the Divine qualities of mercy. These are traditionally divided into thirteen attributes, usually as numbered here:¹

The Torah uses the verb “va-ya’avor,” to describe God’s passing before Moshe. The same verb is used in Rabbinic literature to denote someone leading prayer services, or passing before the ark: “over lifnei ha-teiva.”² Rabbi Yochanan, connecting these two meanings, understands God’s verbal evocation of Divine qualities as a depiction of God modeling prayer. God dons a tallit “like a prayer leader” in order to demonstrate prayer that is sure to lead to forgiveness.

How are we to make sense of this anthropomorphic reading of the Biblical narrative? Maharal suggests that Rabbi Yochanan’s physical description is a teaching device to convey a more metaphysical message: The best way for us to come to cleave to God is by adhering to God’s ways, as described by the attributes of mercy. The Divine enwrapping while uttering these attributes represents full focus in prayer. If we can emulate this focus when reciting the attributes, then the recitation can help us realize the Divine presence in our midst.

For Maharal, God’s revelation to Moshe provides us with a way to reveal God and make Divine mercy manifest. In the continuation of the Talmudic passage, Rav Yehuda adds another facet to our understanding of the attributes’ power by expounding the Torah’s account of God committing to a covenant after reciting them.

To Rav Yehuda, the attributes themselves are covenantal. Their recitation thus reliably elicits a Divine response, actualizing the attributes of mercy for the whole Jewish people.

Taken at face value, a claim that uttering the thirteen attributes guarantees that prayers will be answered is difficult to understand. Perhaps this is why Rav Amram Ga’on notes that it is not enough merely to utter the words. Rather, their power to invoke the covenant depends on our genuine contrition and submission to God as a community:³

To truly know God is to recognize the Divine presence and to emulate the attributes of the Divine. Reciting the attributes helps us achieve this knowledge. (To learn more about the attributes and their meaning, we recommend this series by Deracheha’s Halacha Editor-in-Chief, Rav Ezra Bick. For an accessible Hebrew-language edition of Ashkenazi Selichot with commentary, see here.)

As we saw above, the Talmud describes the attributes of mercy as an order of prayer, a “seder tefilla.” Selichot is a name for that order of prayer, a liturgical platform for knowing God and finding forgiveness through communal recitation of the thirteen attributes.

More specifically, the term Selichot refers to the piyyutim (liturgical poems) integrating Biblical verses (including verses from the narrative of Moshe’s prayers and God’s forgiveness at the sin of the calf) with recitation of the attributes of mercy, which are followed by viduy, verbal confession, and various penitential prayers. We introduce the service with Ashrei and Half Kaddish, and conclude with a full Kaddish.

Though Selichot are now recited on most fast days as well as in Elul, they likely began only as part of the formal prayers on Yom Kippur. This is fitting because rabbinic tradition identifies the day of receiving the second tablets with Yom Kippur, our ultimate day of forgiveness:

Rabbeinu Asher teaches that there was a Geonic custom to add special entreaties to prayer in the ten days of repentance leading up to Yom Kippur, or even from Rosh Chodesh Elul, which was the beginning of the forty days of entreaty on Har Sinai before receiving the second tablets.

Rosh’s son, Ba’al Ha-turim, describing the custom in his era, states that “Selichot” are recited in addition to the penitential prayers, and elaborates on the varying customs of when to recite them. Ashkenazi communities typically begin Selichot on a Motza’ei Shabbat prior to Rosh Ha-shana,⁴ and Sefardi communities, begin right after Rosh Chodesh Elul,⁵ and continue through Yom Kippur. (In Chabad custom, Selichot stop at Rosh Ha-shana.⁶)

Though the tone and content of different communities’ Selichot vary—most notably in that Sefardi Selichot are overall more upbeat and uniform from day to day than the Ashkenazi traditions’ heartwrenching panoply of piyyutim (liturgical poems)—the varying practices evolved from a common tradition and have much in common. For example, the main Ashkenazi traditions (the customs of Poland, Lithuania, and Bohemia) feature many of the same piyyutim, though they often differ regarding the proper night or order in which to say them.

In a landmark study of the origins of Selichot,⁷ Professor Shulamit Elitzur explains that a series of prayers and entreaties known as Rachamin—which do not focus on the attributes of mercy and were recited in the wee hours of the night—became conflated at some point with Selichot—the piyyutim revolving around recitation of the attributes, which were originally connected with prayer services:

For example, Selichot and Rachamin are preserved as distinct services, one following the other, in Siddur Rav Sa’adya Ga’on, with some of the hallmark prayers of what we call Selichot (e.g., Adon Ha-Selichot) included in Rachamin.⁸ In his description of special prayer in Elul, Rambam does not explicitly mention Selichot or the attributes of mercy, and may have had Rachamin in mind:

Timing

The ideal timing for Selichot remains that of the Rachamin service, between chatzot (halachic midnight) and dawn. In mystical tradition, this interval is considered an “et ratzon” (a time of favor).

What if someone cannot recite Selichot in the late night or wee hours of the morning?

Rav Moshe Feinstein, writing in New York, where chatzot (halachic midnight) in Elul can be quite late, permitted reciting Selichot earlier at night in pressing situations:

Alternatively, Rav Ovadya Yosef permits reciting Selichot prior to Mincha, as he occasionally saw practiced:

Current practice in many communities is to recite Selichot just prior to Shacharit, even if that is after dawn, in part out of concern that a late night will impair participants’ functioning during the day, including performance of mitzvot. Nevertheless, the preferred time for Selichot is still the second half of the night, between chatzot and dawn⁹. Rav Eliezer Melamed summarizes:¹⁰

Selichot in Elul have developed an independent liturgical structure to go along with their distinct timing. This structure is akin to the structure of a full “order of prayer,” and has halachic ramifications:

Levush views the recitation of the attributes of mercy as parallel to reciting Shemoneh Esrei. This comparison can explain why Kaddish is recited following Selichot as it is following prayers. This parallel also speaks to the essential nature of Selichot.

We’ve learned that women are obligated in prayer, and more specifically in Shemoneh Esrei, because prayer is fundamentally an act of seeking Divine mercy, and it is critical for all of us to pray for ourselves as well as for the community. As we’ve seen, the key reason for reciting Selichot overlaps with this essential reason for reciting prayer. However, unlike prayer, as Tur (above) notes, reciting Selichot is a custom and not a mitzva. Does that custom, then, apply to women?

Rema rules that a woman may attend synagogue on the Yamim Nora’im while in nidda, even in locales when women in nidda did not customarily attend synagogue, because all other women would attend. (See more here.) In his comments on this ruling, Magen Avraham applies it to women attending Selichot:

Magen Avraham strongly implies that women had the custom of attending Selichot. Indeed, a late-fifteenth-century printed edition of Selichot in Italy bears the signature of a contemporary woman and of another woman a few centuries later, presumably because they prayed from it.¹¹ Some collections of techines, women’s folk prayers, include recitations for the days of Selichot, presumably in lieu of formal Selichot, a further indication of women’s interest.

Still, since women’s custom regarding Selichot varies widely, with many women attending only on the first night, Rav Gavriel Ciner suggests that Magen Avraham may have referred specifically to a non-binding custom:¹²

Where there is not a clear custom for women to attend, there is room for a woman to make her own decisions regarding reciting or attending Selichot.

Although many women omit recitation of Tachanun when praying, Rav Ezra Bick (in a personal communication to Deracheha) maintains that it is especially important to recite Tachanun at the end of Selichot if recited in a minyan. This is because Moshe Rabbeinu’s immediate response to hearing the thirteen attributes of mercy was to bow down and prostrate himself on the ground:

In a minyan (some would say, in the presence of a sefer Torah),¹³ we can emulate Moshe’s response to the attributes of mercy at Tachanun at the conclusion of Selichot, by falling on our faces.

A wide range of people find it difficult or impossible to attend Selichot services late at night or early in the morning. What of individuals who wish to recite Selichot but cannot attend minyan, or communities that cannot gather ten men for Selichot? This question is addressed often in halachic literature, presumably because it has arisen frequently.

The Talmudic statement about the thirteen attributes of mercy describes God as wrapped in a tallit as a “shali’ach tzibbur,” prayer leader, revealing an order of prayer to be recited by “Israel.” The passage conveys an assumption of communal prayer, and might suggest the need for a minyan when reciting the attributes.

To see how the Ge’onim develop this idea, let’s look again at the passage from Seder Rav Amram Ga’on, this time adding in more of the context:

Rav Natan understands the recitation of the thirteen attributes of mercy as fundamentally communal, since it is the teshuva and prayer of a community that take on covenantal proportions. Therefore, he rules that the attributes may not be recited in prayer without a tzibbur.

Sefer Ha-minhagim offers a different explanation for reciting the thirteen attributes only in a tzibbur, in the name of twelfth-century Ashkenaz authority Rav Eliezer of Metz. This position is based on the once common practice of reciting Selichot as part of the shali’ach tzibbur‘s repetition of the Amida prayer:

On this view, the essential concern is with an individual interrupting their recitation of the Amida to say the thirteen attributes. It would not apply to Selichot recited outside of the daily prayer service, which is how we say them during Elul and aseret yemei teshuva.

Typically, in halachic discussions of prayer, the term tzibbur refers to a group including a minyan of men, and yachid refers to praying without a minyan. Rav Eliezer of Metz’s use of the term tzibbur clearly assumes the presence of a minyan, as required for a repetition of Shemoneh Esrei. Tur similarly understands Rav Natan as requiring a minyan, and then challenges this ruling.

According to Tur, one praying be-yachid, without a minyan, may recite any Biblical verses, including the thirteen attributes. A minyan should only be required for a davar she-bikdusha (an element of prayer that is halachically defined as a sanctification of God’s name, which we discuss here):

However, Rashba (Tur’s contemporary) argues the opposite. He agrees with Rav Natan that one praying be-yachid may not recite the attributes in prayer, and asserts that reciting them is similar to a davar she-bikdusha. He also does not draw a distinction between recitation within the Shemoneh Esrei and outside it.

Rashba adds, though, that one praying be-yachid may recite the thirteen attributes in the same manner in which one reads them from a Torah, like other verses. This position is a bit paradoxical, since the individual’s motivation for reciting the verses is to pray, while the justification for reciting them is that they can be said in a non-prayerful manner. One possible virtue of Rashba’s suggestion, though, is that it makes it intelligible for someone praying be-yachid to recite the piyyutim of Selichot that allude to the thirteen attributes.

Shulchan Aruch follows Rashba, using even stronger language. He maintains that recitation of the thirteen attributes on a fast day is not just like a davar she-bikdusha, but is a davar she-bikdusha, which thus requires a minyan.

While Shulchan Aruch’s ruling leaves room for individuals, or groups without a minyan, to recite the rest of Selichot (aside from Kaddish), Rema here rules that an individual should not recite Selichot at all , and specifies that this includes recitation of “Va-ya’avor,” the beginning of the passage of the thirteen attributes of mercy.

We can trace Rema’s ruling to Or Zarua, who seems to record a more extreme version of the Ge’onic tradition:

How can we make sense of the idea that one praying be-yachid could not recite Selichot? Does that mean that in this situation one could not say Selichot at all?

Magen Avraham suggests that this view follows that of Rabbi Eliezer of Metz, and thus only prevents one praying be-yachid from reciting Selichot within Shemoneh Esrei:

However, Eliya Rabba, citing the related thirteenth-century works Shibbolei ha-leket and Tanya Rabbati,¹⁴ maintains that Rema’s restrictive ruling applies to all recitations of Selichot, not just during Shemoneh Esrei:¹⁵

What alternatives are there for understanding Rema? If we keep in mind that the more narrow, original meaning of Selichot refers specifically to piyyutim introducing recitation of the thirteen attributes, it makes some sense. What point is there in saying a piyyut that introduces a recitation that one will not make?Taz takes this idea to its logical conclusion, suggesting that an individual reciting Selichot omit any portion of Selichot that refers to the attributes of mercy:

His father-in-law and teacher, Bach, understands Rema’s ruling as more limited. When Rema states that one praying be-yachid may not recite Selichot at all, perhaps he means specifically to rule out recitation of Selichot with the attributes, along with the full verse containing them. But other coherent entreaties including the entreaties of Rachamin may be recited by anyone:

Bach adds that Rema and Or Zarua may intend to preclude the individual from reciting the attributes of mercy as one would when reading from the Torah (as Rashba suggests), because of the paradox involved in doing so.

Aramaic Sections

Reciting the thirteen attributes is not the only issue that arises for those reciting Selichot without a minyan. Some of the Aramaic prayers in the concluding portion of the Selichot service also raise questions, because the Talmud teaches that one praying be-yachid should not pray in request to God in Aramaic:

Discussion of angels can be challenging to understand. Lest we think that this passage means that the individual prays to angels, Rashi explains that individuals merely require the assistance of the ministering angels in making their requests of God heard, while those participating in communal prayer do not:

In light of the Talmudic discussion, Tanya Rabbati rules that one praying be-yachid reciting Selichot should omit the sections in Aramaic:

A number of halachic authorities, including Eliya Rabba and Mishna Berura, who cites him, rule accordingly.¹⁶

Other authorities permit one praying be-yachid to recite these sections, since a native Aramaic speaker would be permitted to pray in Aramaic and since the early halachic discussion of distinguishing between individual and communal Selichot makes no note of them.

In Practice

In practice, many halachic authorities follow the approaches of Shulchan Aruch and Bach to permit individuals or groups without a minyan to recite Selichot, omitting prayerful recitation of the thirteen attributes:

Rav Moshe Feinstein rules that one can still say the thirteen attributes of mercy, as one would say them when reading from the Torah or learning, as suggested by Rashba and Shulchan Aruch:

Rav Moshe allows for reciting the verse as one would read it while studying Torah, even if not with the traditional cantillation. He also insists on reciting the full verse, as one usually should while learning,¹⁷ rather than stopping before the end of the verse, as is more tolerated in prayer. The end of the verse, which discusses the consequences of sin being born by future generations, is omitted from Selichot when recited with a minyan.

Others, including Ben Ish Chai, allow for saying the attributes in this context leaving the end of the verse off, since the pause one makes then is only one word after the cantillatory mark known as an etnachta, which is the traditional place to pause mid-verse:

An individual woman, a group of women, or a mixed group reciting Selichot with no minyan available can thus recite Selichot in full, with the exception of Kaddish, modifying the recitation of the thirteen attributes of mercy so that they are said in the mode of Torah study, and perhaps reciting the end of the verse to make that clear.¹⁸

One who usually bows at the words “Va-ya’avor Hashem al panav” would not do so without a minyan. As above, there is a difference of opinion regarding reciting the Aramaic sections without a minyan.

If said with contrition and focus on God’s mercy in this context, reciting the attributes of mercy (or contemplating them meditatively) may still lead to revealing the Divine presence in its mercy, even if not as they do when said as entreaty in the presence of a minyan. Even when the attributes are fully omitted, a gathering in prayer and entreaty at this time of year has independent value as the original Rachamin service did.

The depiction of God reciting the attributes as a shali’ach tzibbur suggests that the person leading Selichot with a minyan is considered a shali’ach tzibbur. Rabbeinu Meshulam says this explicitly:

In practice, though many praying be-tzibbur say the attributes of mercy in unison, the shali’ach tzibbur of Selichot still recites Va-ya’avor alone and leads from Kaddish to Kaddish.

Taking the idea that the leader of Selichot is a shali’ach tzibbur a step further, Kolbo mentions a custom for the shali’ach tzibbur of Selichot to serve as shali’ach tzibbur for the daily prayers as well:

Kolbo takes it as a given that a shali’ach tzibbur for Selichot could serve as shali’ach tzibbur for other prayers. This idea also follows from the comparison that the Gemara draws between the thirteen attributes and an order of prayer, and that Levush develops into a comparison between the attributes and Shemoneh Esrei. (Quoted again below, along with the next point.) It is thus unsurprising that Levush recommends appointing a shali’ach tzibbur for Selichot who would be fitting for Yamim Nora’im.

Rema cites both of these comments,¹⁹ which indicates that he, too, considers the role of shali’ach tzibbur for Selichot as consistent with the role of shali’ach tzibbur for other tefillot with a minyan.

In our piece on tefilla be-tzibbur, we explore why a woman may not serve as shali’ach tzibbur for the repetition of Shemoneh Esrei, and for services as a whole. The comparison of Selichot to a classic prayer service, and specifically of the attributes of mercy to Shemoneh Esrei, explains why women do not serve as shali’ach tzibbur for Selichot in traditional Orthodox synagogues.

In the same piece, we look at whether there is room for a woman to lead a davar she-bikdusha when a minyan is present, or otherwise to lead a minyan in prayers where the leader is not acting as a formal agent for the community. At first glance, these might seem relevant here, since Shulchan Aruch follows the view that the attributes are a davar she-bikdusha and since Selichot are not an obligatory prayer on the level of Shemoneh Esrei. However, as above, the comparison between prayer and Selichot has been widely accepted, and this leads to having only one leader for each day’s Selichot, a male eligible to recite all of its components (including Kaddish and the attributes) as well as other prayer services.

It is permissible for a woman to lead a group of other women in a Selichot service, modified to account for the lack of a minyan (e.g., without Kaddish, and with the attributes recited as one would when reading from a text, or skipped, or meditatively contemplated in silence). In many ways, such a gathering is reminiscent of the Rachamin service recited faithfully at this time of night in aseret yemei teshuva during the Ge’onic era—a service which was highly valued, but did not center around Selichot.